| Rabindranath Tagore
রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর | |
|---|---|
Tagore in Kolkata, c. 1915 | |
| Born | 7 May 1861
Calcutta, Bengal Presidency, British India |
| Died | 7 August 1941 (aged 80)
Calcutta, Bengal Province, British India |
| Occupation | Poet, playwright, philosopher, composer, artist |
| Period | Bengal Renaissance |
| Notable award(s) | Nobel Prize in Literature
(1913) |
| | |
| | |
| Signature |  |
Rabindranath Tagore (Bengali: রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর)α[›]β[›] (7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941),γ[›]Gurudev,δ[›] was a Bengali polymath who reshaped Bengali literature and music. Author of Gitanjali and its "profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse",[1] he was the first non-European Nobel laureate.[2] His poetry in translation was viewed as spiritual, and this together with his mesmerizing persona gave him a prophet-like aura in the West. His "elegant prose and magical poetry" remain largely unknown outside Bengal.[3] sobriquet
A Pirali Brahmin[4][5][6][7] from Kolkata, Tagore had been writing poetry since he was eight years old.[8] At age 16, he published his first substantial poetry under the pseudonym Bhanushingho ("Sun Lion")[9][10] and wrote his first short stories and dramas in 1877. Tagore achieved further note when he denounced the British Raj and supported Indian independence. His efforts endure in his vast canon and in the institution he founded, Visva-Bharati University.
Tagore modernised Bengali art by spurning rigid classical forms. His novels, stories, songs, dance-dramas, and essays spoke to political and personal topics. Gitanjali (Song Offerings), Gora (Fair-Faced), and Ghare-Baire (The Home and the World) are his best-known works, and his verse, short stories, and novels were acclaimed for their lyricism, colloquialism, naturalism, and contemplation. Tagore penned two national anthems: India's Jana Gana Mana and Bangladesh's Amar Shonar Bangla.
Early life (1861–1901)
The youngest of 13 surviving children, Tagore was born in the Jorasanko mansion in Kolkata of parents Debendranath Tagore (1817–1905) and Sarada Devi (1830–1875).ε[›][11] Tagore family patriarchs were the Brahmo founding fathers of the Adi Dharm faith. He was mostly raised by servants, as his mother had died in his early childhood; his father travelled extensively.[12] Tagore largely declined classroom schooling, preferring to roam the mansion or nearby idylls: Bolpur, Panihati, and others.[13][14] Upon his upanayan initiation at age eleven, Tagore left Calcutta on 14 February 1873 to tour India with his father for several months. They visited his father's Santiniketan estate and stopped in Amritsar before reaching the Himalayan hill station of Dalhousie.
There, "Rabi" read biographies and was home-educated in history, astronomy, modern science, and Sanskrit, and examined the poetry of Kālidāsa.[15][16] He completed major works in 1877, one long poem of the Maithili style pioneered by Vidyapati. Published pseudonymously, experts accepted them as the lost works of Bhānusiṃha, a newly discoveredζ[›] 17th-century Vaiṣṇava poet.[17] He wrote the Bengali language's first short story in 1877: "Bhikharini" ("The Beggar Woman").[18][19] His Sandhya Sangit (1882) includes the famous poem "Nirjharer Swapnabhanga" ("The Rousing of the Waterfall").
A prospective barrister, Tagore enrolled at a public school in Brighton, East Sussex, England in 1878. He first stayed for some months at a house that the Tagore family owned near Brighton and Hove, in Medina Villas; in 1877, his nephew and niece—Suren and Indira, the children of Tagore's brother Satyendranath—were sent together with their mother (Tagore's sister-in-law) to live with him.[20] He read law at University College London, but left school to explore Shakespeare and more:Religio Medici, Coriolanus, and Antony and Cleopatra;[21][22] On 9 December 1883 he married Mrinalini Devi (born Bhabatarini, 1873–1902); they had five children, two of whom died before reaching adulthood.[23] he returned degreeless to Bengal in 1880. In life and art, Tagore reconciled English strictures and his Hindu background by picking the best from each.
In 1890, Tagore began managing his family's vast estates in Shilaidaha, a region now in Bangladesh; he was joined by his wife and children in 1898. In 1890, Tagore released his Manasi poems, among his best-known work.[24] As Zamindar Babu, Tagore criss-crossed the holdings in his family's luxurious barge, the Padma, to collect rents—mostly token—and bless villagers, who held feasts in his honour.[25] These years—1891–1895: Tagore's Sadhana[12] During this period, he wrote more than half the stories of the three-volume, 84-story Galpaguchchha.[18] Ironic and grave, they savoured Bengali rural life.[26] period, after one of Tagore's magazines—were his most fecund.
[edit] Santiniketan (1901–1932)
In 1901, Tagore left Shilaidaha and moved to Santiniketan to found an ashram which grew to include a marble-floored prayer hall ("The Mandir"), an experimental school, groves of trees, gardens, and a library.[27] There, Tagore's wife and two of his children died. His father died on 19 January 1905. He received monthly payments as part of his inheritance and additional income from the Maharaja of Tripura, sales of his family's jewellery, his seaside bungalow in Puri, and mediocre royalties (
2,000) from his works.[28] By now, his work was gaining him a large following among Bengali and foreign readers alike, and he published such works as Naivedya (1901) and Kheya (1906) while translating his poems into free verse. On 14 November 1913, Tagore learned that he had won the 1913 Nobel Prize in Literature, becoming the first Asian Nobel laureate. The Swedish Academy appreciated the idealistic and for Western readers, accessible nature of a small body of his translated material, including the 1912 Gitanjali: Song Offerings.[29] In 1915, Tagore was knighted by the British Crown. He renounced it after the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
In 1921, Tagore and agricultural economist Leonard Elmhirst set up the Institute for Rural Reconstruction, later renamed Shriniketan or "Abode of Welfare", in Surul, a village near the ashram at Santiniketan. Through it, Tagore bypassed Gandhi's symbolic Swaraj protests, which he despised.[30] He sought aid from donors, officials, and scholars worldwide to "free village[s] from the shackles of helplessness and ignorance" by "vitalis[ing] knowledge".[31][32] In the early 1930s, he targeted India's "abnormal caste consciousness" and untouchability. Lecturing against these, he penned untouchable heroes for his poems and dramas and campaigned successfully to open Guruvayoor Temple to Dalits.[33][34]
[edit] Twilight years (1932–1941)
Tagore's international travels also sharpened his opinion that human divisions were shallow. During a May 1932 visit to a Bedouin encampment in the Iraqi desert, the tribal chief told him that "Our prophet has said that a true Muslim is he by whose words and deeds not the least of his brother-men may ever come to any harm ..." Tagore noted in his diary: "I was startled into recognizing in his words the voice of essential humanity."[35] To the end, Tagore scrutinized orthodoxy. He upbraided Gandhi for declaring that a massive 15 January 1934 earthquake in Bihar, leaving thousands dead, was divine retribution brought on by the oppression of Dalits.[36] He mourned the endemic poverty of Calcutta and the accelerating socioeconomic decline of Bengal, which he detailed in an unrhymed 100-line poem whose technique of searing double-vision would foreshadow Satyajit Ray's film Apur Sansar.[37][38]Punashcha (1932), Shes Saptak (1935), and Patraput (1936). Experimentation continued as he developed prose-songs and dance-dramas, including Chitrangada (1914),[39] ShyamaChandalika (1938), and wrote the novels Dui Bon (1933), Malancha (1934), and Char Adhyay (1934). Fifteen new volumes of Tagore writings appeared, among them the prose-poems works (1939), and
Tagore took an interest in science in his last years, writing Visva-Parichay (a collection of essays) in 1937. His exploration of biology, physics, and astronomy impacted his poetry, which often contained extensive naturalism that underscored his respect for scientific laws. He also wove the process of science, including narratives of scientists, into many stories contained in such volumes as Se (1937), Tin Sangi (1940), and Galpasalpa (1941).[40] His last five years were marked by chronic pain and two long periods of illness. These began when Tagore lost consciousness in late 1937; he remained comatose and near death for an extended period. This was followed three years later, in late 1940, by a similar spell, from which he never recovered. The poetry Tagore wrote in these years is among his finest, and is distinctive for its preoccupation with death.[41][42] After extended suffering, Tagore died on 7 August 1941 (22 Shravan 1348) in an upstairs room of the Jorasanko mansion in which he was raised,[43][44] aged 80 years. His death anniversary is mourned across the Bengali-speaking world.[45] The last person to see Tagore alive was Amiya Kumar Sen (brother of Sukumar Sen, the first chief election commissioner); Tagore dictated his last poem to Sen, who wrote it down. Sen later donated the resulting draft to a museum in Kolkata.
[edit] Travels
Between 1878 and 1932, Tagore visited more than 30 countries on five continents;[47] many of these trips were crucial in familiarising non-Indian audiences with his works and spreading his political ideas. In 1912, he took a sheaf of his translated works to England, where they impressed missionary and Gandhi protégé Charles F. Andrews, Irish poet William Butler Yeats, Ezra Pound, Robert Bridges, Ernest Rhys, Thomas Sturge Moore, and others.[48]Gitanjali, while Andrews joined Tagore at Santiniketan. On 10 November 1912, Tagore began touring the United States[49] and the United Kingdom, staying in Butterton, Staffordshire with Andrews's clergymen friends.[50] From 3 May 1916 until April 1917, Tagore went on lecturing circuits in Japan and the United States[51] and denounced nationalism.[52] His essay "Nationalism in India" was scorned and praised, this latter by pacifists, including Romain Rolland.[53] Indeed, Yeats wrote the preface to the English translation of
Shortly after returning to India, the 63-year-old Tagore accepted the Peruvian government's invitation to visit. He travelled to Mexico. Each government pledged US$100,000 to the school at Shantiniketan (Visva-Bharati) to commemorate his visits.[54] A week after his 6 November 1924 arrival in Buenos Aires,[55] an ill Tagore moved into the Villa Miralrío at the behest of Victoria Ocampo. He left for India in January 1925. On 30 May 1926, Tagore reached Naples, Italy; he met Mussolini in Rome the next day.[56] Their warm rapport ended when Tagore criticised Il Duce's political touch.[57] He had earlier enthused: "[w]ithout any doubt he is a great personality. There is such a massive vigour in that head that it reminds one of Michael Angelo’s chisel." A "fire-bath" of fascism was to have educed "the immortal soul of Italy ... clothed in quenchless light".[58]
On 14 July 1927, Tagore and two companions began a four-month tour of Southeast Asia, visiting Bali, Java, Kuala Lumpur, Malacca, Penang, Siam, and Singapore. Tagore's travelogues from the tour were collected into the work "Jatri".[59] In early 1930 he left Bengal for nearly a year-long tour of Europe and the United States. Once he returned to the UK, while his paintings were being exhibited in Paris and London, he stayed at a Quaker settlement in Birmingham. There he wrote his Oxford Hibbert Lecturesι[›] and spoke at London's annual Quaker gathering.[60] There (addressing relations between the British and Indians, a topic he would grapple with over the next two years), Tagore spoke of a "dark chasm of aloofness".[61] He visited Aga Khan III, stayed at Dartington Hall, and toured Denmark, Switzerland, and Germany from June to mid-September 1930, then the Soviet Union.[62] Lastly, in April 1932, Tagore—who was acquainted with the legends and works of the Persian mystic Hafez—was hosted by Reza Shah Pahlavi of Iran.[63][64] The well-heeled Tagore interacted with many notables: Henri Bergson, Albert Einstein, Robert Frost, Thomas Mann, George Bernard Shaw, H.G. Wells and Romain Rolland.[65][66][67] Tagore's last travels abroad, including visits to Persia and Iraq (in 1932) and Sri Lanka (in 1933), only sharpened his opinions regarding human divisions and nationalism.[35]
[edit] Works
Though known mostly for his poetry, Tagore also wrote novels, essays, short stories, travelogues, dramas, and thousands of songs. Of Tagore's prose, his short stories are perhaps most highly regarded; indeed, he is credited with originating the Bengali-language version of the genre. His works are frequently noted for their rhythmic, optimistic, and lyrical nature. Such stories mostly borrow from deceptively simple subject matter: common people. Tagore's non-fiction grappled with Indian history, linguistics, and spirituality. Aside from autobiographical works, his travelogues, essays, and lectures were compiled into several volumes, including Europe Jatrir Patro (Letters from Europe) and Manusher Dhormo (The Religion of Man). A brief conversation between him and Albert Einstein, "Note on the Nature of Reality", is included as an appendix.
[edit] Novels
Tagore wrote eight novels and four novellas, among them Chaturanga, Shesher Kobita, Char Odhay, and Noukadubi. Ghare Baire (The Home and the World)—through the lens of the idealistic zamindar protagonist Nikhil—excoriates rising Indian nationalism, terrorism, and religious zeal in the Swadeshi movement; a frank expression of Tagore's conflicted sentiments, it emerged out of a 1914 bout of depression. The novel ends in Hindu-Muslim violence and Nikhil's (likely mortal) wounding.[69] Gora raises controversial questions regarding the Indian identity. As with Ghare Baire, matters of self-identity (jāti), personal freedom, and religion are developed in the context of a family story and love triangle.[70]
In Jogajog (Relationships), the heroine Kumudini—bound by the ideals of Śiva-Sati, exemplified by Dākshāyani—is torn between her pity for the sinking fortunes of her progressive and compassionate elder brother and his foil: her exploitative, rakish, and patriarchical husband. In it, Tagore demonstrates his feminist leanings, using pathos to depict the plight and ultimate demise of Bengali women trapped by pregnancy, duty, and family honour; simultaneously, he treats the decline of Bengal's landed oligarchy.[71] The story revolves around the underlying rivalry between two families—the Chatterjees, aristocrats now on the decline (Biprodas) and the Ghosals (Madhusudan), representing new money and arrogance. Kumudini, Biprodas' sister, is caught between the two as she is married off to Madhusudan. She was brought up in a sheltered home where she had followed the traditional way of life and observed all the religious rituals like all the other womenfolk in the family.
Others were uplifting: Shesher Kobita (translated twice as Last Poem and Farewell Song) is his most lyrical novel, with poems and rhythmic passages written by the main character, a poet. It also contains elements of satire and postmodernism; stock characters gleefully attack the reputation of an old, outmoded, oppressively renowned poet who, incidentally, goes by the name of Rabindranath Tagore. Though his novels remain among the least-appreciated of his works, they have been given renewed attention via film adaptations by Satyajit Ray and others: Chokher Bali and Ghare Baireare exemplary. In the first, Tagore elaborately records early 20th century Bengali society, through his central character, the rebellious widow, who wants to live a life of her own. In writing this novel he exposes the custom of perpetual mourning on the part of widows, who were not allowed to remarry and were condemned to a life of seclusion and loneliness. It is a melancholy, stirring tale of the deceit and sorrow that arise from dissatisfaction and sorrow. Tagore has said about the novel, "I have always regretted the ending". Their soundtracks often feature rabindrasangit. In the latter work, it illustrates the battle Tagore had with himself, between the ideas of Western culture and revolution against the Western culture. These two ideas are portrayed in two of the main characters, Nikhil, who is rational and opposes violence, and Sandip, who will let nothing stand in his way from reaching his goals. These two opposing ideals are very important in understanding the history of this region and its contemporary problems. There is much controversy over whether or not Tagore was attempting to represent Gandhi in Sandip but many argue that Tagore would not even venture to personify Sandip as Gandhi because Tagore was a large admirer of Gandhi and Gandhi was anti-violence while Sandip would use violence in any respect to get what he wanted.
[edit] Music and art
Tagore composed roughly 2,230 songs and was a prolific painter. His songs compose Rabindra Sangeet ("Tagore Song"), which is one with his literature, most of which—poems or parts of novels, stories, or plays alike—were lyricised. Influenced by the thumri style of Hindustani music, they ran the entire gamut of human emotion, ranging from his early dirge-like Brahmo devotional hymns to quasi-erotic compositions.[72] They emulated the tonal color of classical ragas to varying extents. Though at times his songs mimicked a given raga's melody and rhythm faithfully, he also blended elements of different ragas to create innovative works.[73]
Tagore influenced sitar maestro Vilayat Khan and sarodiyas Buddhadev Dasgupta and Amjad Ali Khan.[73] His songs are immensely popular and form a foundation for the Bengali ethos that is comparable to, perhaps even greater than, that which Shakespeare has on the English-speaking world. It is said that his songs are the outcome of 500 years of literary churning that the Bengali community has gone through. Dhan Gopal Mukerji has said that these songs transcend the mundane to the aesthetic and express all ranges and categories of human emotion. The poet had given a voice to all—big or small, rich or poor. The poorest boatman on the Ganges as well as the rich landlord find expression for their emotional trials and tribulations in Tagore's songs. It has evolved into a distinctive school of music. Practitioners of this genre are known to be fiercely traditional: novel interpretations have drawn severe censure in both West Bengal and Bangladesh.
For Bengalis, the songs' appeal, stemming from the combination of emotive strength and beauty described as surpassing even Tagore's poetry, was such that the Modern ReviewArthur Strangways of The Observer introduced non-Bengalis to rabindrasangeet in The Music of Hindostan, calling it a "vehicle of a personality ... [that] go behind this or that system of music to that beauty of sound which all systems put out their hands to seize."[74] observed that "[t]here is in Bengal no cultured home where Rabindranath's songs are not sung or at least attempted to be sung ... Even illiterate villagers sing his songs".
In 1971, Amar Shonar Bangla became the national anthem of Bangladesh. Ironically, it was written to protest the 1905 Partition of Bengal) along communal lines: Muslim-majority East Bengal and Hindu-dominated West Bengal. Tagore saw the partition as ploy to upend the independence movement. The song aimed to rekindle Bengali unity and raise public consciousness against communalism. Jana Gana Mana was written in shadhu-bhasha, a Sanskritised register of Bengali, and is the first of five stanzas of a Brahmo hymn that Tagore composed. It was first sung in 1911 at a Calcutta session of the Indian National Congress and was adopted by the Constituent Assembly as the Indian national anthem in 1950.
At age sixty, Tagore took up drawing and painting; successful exhibitions of his many works—which made a debut appearance in Paris upon encouragement by artists he met in the south of France[75]—were held throughout Europe. He was likely red-green color blind. The result: his paintings betrayed fey colour schemes and aesthetics. Tagore limned craftwork from northern New Ireland, Haida carvings from British Columbia, and woodcuts by Max Pechstein.[68] His artist's eye for his handwriting were revealed in the simple artistic and rhythmic leitmotifs embellishing the scribbles, cross-outs, and word layouts of his manuscripts.
[edit] Theatre
At 16, Tagore led his brother Jyotirindranath's adaptation of Molière's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme.[76] At 20, he wrote his first drama-opera Valmiki Pratibha (The Genius of Valmiki), which describes how the pandit Valmiki reforms his ethos, is blessed by Saraswati, and composes the Rāmāyana.[77] Through it, Tagore vigorously explores a wide range of dramatic styles and emotions, including usage of revamped kirtans and adaptation of traditional English and Irish folk melodies as drinking songs.[78] Another notable play, Dak Ghar (The Post Office), describes how a child striving to escape his stuffy confines, ultimately "fall[s] asleep" (which suggests his physical death). A story with worldwide appeal (it received rave reviews in Europe), Dak Ghar dealt with death as, in Tagore's words, "spiritual freedom" from "the world of hoarded wealth and certified creeds".[79][80] In the Nazi-era Warsaw Ghetto, Polish doctor and educator Janusz Korczak had orphans in his care stage "The Post Office" on 18 July 1942. In The King of Children, biographer Betty Jean Lifton suspected that Korczak, agonising over whether one should determine when and how to die, was easing the children into accepting death. Three weeks later, the Nazis sent them to Treblinka.
His other works emphasizing fusion of lyrical flow and emotional rhythm tightly focused on a core idea, were unlike previous Bengali dramas. His works sought to articulate, in Tagore's words, "the play of feeling and not of action". In 1890 he wrote Visarjan (Sacrifice), regarded as his finest drama.[77] The Bengali-language originals included intricate subplots and extended monologues. Later, his dramas probed more philosophical and allegorical themes; these included Dak Ghar. Another is Tagore's Chandalika (Untouchable Girl), which was modeled on an ancient Buddhist legend describing how Ananda—the Gautama Buddha's disciple—asks water of an Adivasi (belonging to an indigenous tribe) girl.[81] Lastly, among his most famous dramas is Raktakaravi (Red Oleanders), which tells of a kleptocratic king who enriches himself by forcing his subjects to mine. The heroine, Nandini, eventually rallies the common people to destroy these symbols of subjugation. Tagore's other plays include Chitrangada, Raja, and Mayar Khela. Dance dramas based on Tagore's plays are commonly referred to as rabindra nritya natyas.
[edit] Stories
The "Sadhana" period, 1891–1895, was among Tagore's most fecund, yielding more than half the stories contained in the three-volume Galpaguchchha, itself a group of eighty-four stories.[18] They reflect upon Tagore's surroundings, on modern and fashionable ideas, and on mind puzzles. Tagore associated his earliest stories, such as those of the "Sadhana" period, with an exuberance of vitality and spontaneity; these traits were cultivated by zamindar Tagore’s life in villages such as Patisar, Shajadpur, and Shilaida.[18] Seeing the common and the poor, he examined their lives with a depth and feeling singular in Indian literature up to that point.[82]
In "The Fruitseller from Kabul", Tagore speaks in first person as a town dweller and novelist who chances upon the Afghan seller. He channels the longing of those trapped in mundane, hardscrabble Indian urban life, giving play to dreams of a different existence in the distant and wild mountains: "There were autumn mornings, the time of year when kings of old went forth to conquest; and I, never stirring from my little corner in Calcutta, would let my mind wander over the whole world. At the very name of another country, my heart would go out to it ... I would fall to weaving a network of dreams: the mountains, the glens, the forest .... ".[83]Galpaguchchha stories were written in Tagore’s Sabuj Patra period (1914–1917; also named for one of Tagore's magazines).[18] Many of the other
Tagore's Golpoguchchho (Bunch of Stories) remains among Bengali literature's most popular fictional works, providing subject matter for many successful films and theatrical plays. Satyajit Ray's film Charulata was based upon Tagore's controversial novella, Nastanirh (The Broken Nest). In Atithi (also made into a film), the young Brahmin boy Tarapada shares a boat ride with a village zamindar (aristocrat). The boy reveals that he has run away from home, only to wander ever since. Taking pity, the zamindar adopts him and ultimately arranges his marriage to the zamindar's own daughter. However, the night before the wedding, Tarapada runs off yet again. Strir Patra (The Letter from the Wife) is among Bengali literature's earliest depictions of the bold emancipation of women. The heroine Mrinal, the wife of a typical patriarchical Bengali middle class man, writes a letter while she is travelling (which constitutes the whole story). It details the pettiness of her life and struggles; she finally declares that she will not return to her husband's home with the statement Amio bachbo. Ei bachlum: "And I shall live. Here, I live".
Haimanti assails Hindu marriage and the dismal lifelessness of married Bengali women, hypocrisies plaguing the Indian middle classes, and how Haimanti, a sensitive young woman, due to her sensitivity and free spirit, must sacrifice her life. In the last passage, Tagore directly attacks the Hindu custom of glorifying Sita's attempted self-immolation as a means of appeasing her husband Rama's doubts. Musalmani Didi examines Hindu-Muslim tensions and, in many ways, embodies the essence of Tagore's humanism. Darpaharan exhibits Tagore's self-consciousness, describing a fey young man harboring literary ambitions. Though he loves his wife, he wishes to stifle her own literary career, deeming it unfeminine. Tagore himself, in his youth, seems to have harbored similar ideas about women. Darpaharan depicts the final humbling of the man as he acknowledges his wife's talents. As do many other Tagore stories, Jibito o Mrito equips Bengalis with a ubiquitous epigram: Kadombini moriya proman korilo she more nai—"Kadombini died, thereby proving that she hadn't died in the first place".
[edit] Poetry
Tagore's poetic style ranges from classical formalism to the comic, visionary, and ecstatic, yet proceeds from a lineage established by 15th- and 16th-century Vaishnava poets. Tagore was awed by the mysticism of the rishi-authors who—including Vyasa—wrote the Upanishads, the Bhakti-Sufi mystic Kabir, and Ramprasad Sen.[84] Tagore's poetry became most innovative and mature after his exposure to rural Bengal's folk music, which included Baul ballads—especially those of the bard Lalon.[85][86] These—rediscovered and popularised by Tagore—resemble 19th-century Kartābhajā hymns that emphasize inward divinity and rebellion against religious and social orthodoxy.[87][88] During his Shilaidaha years, his poems took on a lyrical quality, speaking via the maner manus (the Bāuls' "man within the heart") or meditating upon the jivan devata ("living God within"). This figure thus sought connection with divinity through appeal to nature and the emotional interplay of human drama. Tagore used such techniques in his Bhānusiṃha poems (which chronicle the romance between Radha and Krishna), which he repeatedly revised over the course of seventy years.[89][90]
Tagore responded to the mostly crude emergence of modernism and realism in Bengali literature by writing experimental works in the 1930s.[91] Examples works include Africa and Camalia, which are among the better known of his later poems. He occasionally wrote poems using Shadhu Bhasha (a Sanskritised dialect of Bengali); later, he began using Cholti BhashaManasi, Sonar Tori (Golden Boat), Balaka (Wild Geese—the title being a metaphor for migrating souls),[92] and Purobi. Sonar Tori's most famous poem, dealing with the ephemeral nature of life and achievement, goes by the same name; hauntingly it ends: "শূন্য নদীর তীরে রহিনু পড়ি / যাহা ছিল লয়ে গেল সোনার তরী" ("Shunno nodir tire rohinu poŗi / Jaha chhilo loe gêlo shonar tori"—"all I had achieved was carried off on the golden boat—only I was left behind."). Internationally, Gitanjali ( (a more popular dialect). Other notable works include গীতাঞ্জলি) is Tagore's best-known collection, winning him his Nobel.[93] Song VII (গীতাঞ্জলি 127) of Gitanjali:
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Free-verse translation by Tagore (Gitanjali, verse VII):[94]
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"Klanti" (Bengali: ক্লান্তি; "Fatigue"), the sixth poem in Gitanjali:
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Tagore's poetry has been set to music by various composers, among them classical composer Arthur Shepherd's triptych for soprano and string quartet, Alexander Zemlinsky's famous Lyric Symphony, Josef Bohuslav Foerster's cycle of love songs, Leoš Janáček's famous chorus "Potulný šílenec" ("The Wandering Madman") for soprano, tenor, baritone and male chorus, JW 4/43, inspired by Tagore's 1922 lecture in Czechoslovakia which Janáček attended, and Garry Schyman's "Praan", an adaptation of Tagore's poem "Stream of Life" from Gitanjali. The latter was composed and recorded with vocals by Palbasha Siddique to accompany Internet celebrity Matt Harding's 2008 viral video.[95] In 1917 his words were translated adeptly and set to music by Richard Hageman (an Anglo-Dutch composer) to produce what is regarded as one of the finest art songs in the English language: Do not go my love (Ed. Schirmer NY 1917). The second movement of Jonathan Harvey's "One Evening" (1994) sets an excerpt beginning "As I was watching the sunrise..." from a letter of Tagore's, this composer having previously chosen a text by the poet for his piece "Song Offerings" (1985).[96]
[edit] Political views
Tagore's political thought was complex. He opposed imperialism and supported Indian nationalists.[97][98][99] His views have their first poetic release in Manast, mostly composed in his twenties.[24] Evidence produced during the Hindu-German Conspiracy trial and later accounts affirm his awareness of the Ghadarite conspiracy, and stated that he sought the support of Japanese Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake and former Premier Ōkuma Shigenobu.[100] Yet he lampooned the Swadeshi movement, denouncing it in "The Cult of the Charka", an acrid 1925 essay.[101] He emphasized self-help and intellectual uplift of the masses as an alternative, stating that British imperialism was a "political symptom of our social disease", urging Indians to accept that "there can be no question of blind revolution, but of steady and purposeful education".[102][103]
Such views enraged many. He narrowly escaped assassination by Indian expatriates during his stay in a San Francisco hotel in late 1916. The plot failed only because the would-be assassins fell into argument.[104] Yet Tagore wrote songs lionizing the Indian independence movement and renounced his knighthood.[105] Two of Tagore's more politically charged compositions, "Chitto Jetha Bhayshunyo" ("Where the Mind is Without Fear") and "Ekla Chalo Re" ("If They Answer Not to Thy Call, Walk Alone"), gained mass appeal, with the latter favoured by Gandhi.[106] Despite his tumultuous relations with Gandhi,[107] Tagore was key in resolving a Gandhi-Ambedkar dispute involving separate electorates for untouchables, ending Gandhi's fast "unto death".[108][109]
Tagore lampooned rote schooling: in "The Parrot's Training", a bird is caged and force-fed pages torn from books until it dies.[110][111] These views led Tagore, while visiting Santa Barbara on 11 October 1917, to conceive of a new type of university, desiring to "make Santiniketan the connecting thread between India and the world [and] a world center for the study of humanity somewhere beyond the limits of nation and geography."[104] The school, which he named Visva-Bharatiη[›] had its foundation stone laid on 24 December 1918; it was later inaugurated on 24 December 1921.[112] Here, Tagore implemented a brahmacharyagurus to provide individualised guidance for pupils. Tagore worked hard to fundraise for and staff the school, even contributing all of his Nobel Prize moneys.[113] Tagore’s duties as steward and mentor at Santiniketan kept him busy; he taught classes in the morning and wrote the students' textbooks in the afternoon and evening.[114][115] pedagogical structure employing Tagore also fundraised extensively for the school in Europe and the U.S. between 1919 and 1921.
[edit] Impact
Tagore's relevance can be gauged by festivals honouring him: Kabipranam, Tagore's birth anniversary; the annual Tagore Festival held in Urbana, Illinois, in the United States; Rabindra Path Parikrama walking pilgrimages from Calcutta to Shantiniketan; ceremonial recitals of Tagore's poetry held on important anniversaries; and others.[49][116][117] This legacy is most palpable in Bengali culture, ranging from language and arts to history and politics. Nobel laureate Amartya Sen saw Tagore as a "towering figure", being a "deeply relevant and many-sided contemporary thinker".[117] Tagore's Bengali-language writings—the 1939 Rabīndra Rachanāvalī—is also canonised as one of Bengal's greatest cultural treasures. Tagore himself was proclaimed "the greatest poet India has produced".[118]
Tagore was famed throughout much of Europe, North America, and East Asia. He co-founded Dartington Hall School, a progressive coeducational institution;[119] in Japan, he influenced such figures as Nobel laureate Yasunari Kawabata.[120] Tagore's works were widely translated into English, Dutch, German, Spanish, and other European languages by Czech indologist Vincenc Lesný,[121] French Nobel laureate André Gide, Russian poet Anna Akhmatova,[122]Bülent Ecevit,[123] and others. In the United States, Tagore's lecturing circuits, particularly those in 1916–1917, were widely attended and acclaimed. Yet, several controversiesθ[›] involving Tagore resulted in a decline in his popularity in Japan and North America after the late 1920s, concluding with his "near total eclipse" outside of Bengal.[124] former Turkish Prime Minister
Via translations, Tagore influenced Chileans Pablo Neruda and Gabriela Mistral, Mexican writer Octavio Paz, and Spaniards José Ortega y Gasset, Zenobia Camprubí, and Juan Ramón Jiménez. Between 1914 and 1922, the Jiménez-Camprubí spouses translated 22 of Tagore's books from English into Spanish and extensively revised and adapted such works as Tagore's The Crescent Moon. In this time, Jiménez developed "naked poetry".[125] Ortega y Gasset wrote that "Tagore's wide appeal [may stem from the fact that] he speaks of longings for perfection that we all have ... Tagore awakens a dormant sense of childish wonder, and he saturates the air with all kinds of enchanting promises for the reader, who ... pays little attention to the deeper import of Oriental mysticism". Tagore's works circulated in free editions around 1920 alongside those of Dante Alighieri, Miguel de Cervantes, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Plato, and Leo Tolstoy.
Tagore was deemed overrated by some Westerners. Graham Greene doubted that "anyone but Mr. Yeats can still take his poems very seriously."[124] Modern remnants of a past Latin American reverence of Tagore were discovered by an astonished Salman Rushdie during a trip to Nicaragua.[126]
[edit] Corpus
The SNLTR hosts Tagore's complete works, as does Tagore Web, including annotated songs.
- — Bengali —
| Poetry | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| * ভানুসিংহ ঠাকুরের পদাবলী | Bhānusiṃha Ṭhākurer Paḍāvalī | (Songs of Bhānusiṃha Ṭhākur) | 1884 |
| * মানসী | Manasi | (The Ideal One) | 1890 |
| * সোনার তরী | Sonar Tari | (The Golden Boat) | 1894 |
| * গীতাঞ্জলি | Gitanjali | (Song Offerings) | 1910 |
| * গীতিমাল্য | Gitimalya | (Wreath of Songs) | 1914 |
| * বলাকা | Balaka | (The Flight of Cranes) | 1916 |
| Dramas | |||
| * বাল্মিকী প্রতিভা | Valmiki-Pratibha | (The Genius of Valmiki) | 1881 |
| * বিসর্জন | Visarjan | (The Sacrifice) | 1890 |
| * রাজা | Raja | (The King of the Dark Chamber) | 1910 |
| * ডাকঘর | Dak Ghar | (The Post Office) | 1912 |
| * অচলায়তন | Achalayatan | (The Immovable) | 1912 |
| * মুক্তধারা | Muktadhara | (The Waterfall) | 1922 |
| * রক্তকরবী | Raktakaravi | (Red Oleanders) | 1926 |
| Fiction | |||
| * নষ্টনীড় | Nastanirh | (The Broken Nest) | 1901 |
| * গোরা | Gora | (Fair-Faced) | 1910 |
| * ঘরে বাইরে | Ghare Baire | (The Home and the World) | 1916 |
| * যোগাযোগ | Yogayog | (Crosscurrents) | 1929 |
| Memoirs | |||
| * জীবনস্মৃতি | Jivansmriti | (My Reminiscences) | 1912 |
| * ছেলেবেলা | Chhelebela | (My Boyhood Days) | 1940 |
- — English —
| * Thought Relics | 1921[127] |
- — Translations —
| * Chitra | 1914[39] |
| * Creative Unity | 1922[128] |
| * The Crescent Moon | 1913[129] |
| * Fireflies | 1928 |
| * Fruit-Gathering | 1916[130] |
| * The Fugitive | 1921[131] |
| * The Gardener | 1913[132] |
| * Gitanjali: Song Offerings | 1912[133] |
| * Glimpses of Bengal | 1991[134] |
| * The Home and the World | 1985[135] |
| * The Hungry Stones and other stories | 1916[136] |
| * I Won't Let you Go: Selected Poems | 1991 |
| * The Lover of God | 2003 |
| * My Boyhood Days | 1943 |
| * My Reminiscences | 1991[137] |
| * Nationalism | 1991 |
| * The Post Office | 1914[138] |
| * Sadhana: The Realisation of Life | 1913[139] |
| * Selected Letters | 1997 |
| * Selected Poems | 1994 |
| * Selected Short Stories | 1991 |
| * Songs of Kabir | 1915[140] |
| * Stray Birds | 1916[141] |
[edit] Notes
- ^ α: Bengali:
pronounced [ɾobind̪ɾonat̪ʰ ʈʰakuɾ] (
listen); Hindi: [rəʋiːnd̪rəˈnaːt̪ʰ ʈʰaːˈkʊr] ( listen). - ^ β: Romanized from Bengali script:
Robindronath Ţhakur. - ^ γ: Bengali calendar: 25 Baishakh, 1268 – 22 Srabon, 1348 (২৫শে বৈশাখ, ১২৬৮ – ২২শে শ্রাবণ, ১৩৪৮ বঙ্গাব্দ).
- ^ δ: Gurudev translates as "divine mentor".[142]
- ^ ε: Tagore was born at No. 6 Dwarkanath Tagore Lane, Jorasanko—the address of the main mansion (the Jorasanko Thakurbari) inhabited by the Jorasanko branch of the Tagore clan, which had earlier suffered an acrimonious split. Jorasanko was located in the Bengali section of Calcutta, near Chitpur Road.[143]
- ^ ζ: ... and wholly fictive ...
- ^ η: Etymology of "Visva-Bharati": from the Sanskrit for "world" or "universe" and the name of a Rigvedic goddess ("Bharati") associated with Saraswati, the Hindu patron of learning.[112] "Visva-Bharati" also translates as "India in the World".
- ^ θ: Tagore was no stranger to controversy: his dealings with Indian nationalists Subhas Chandra Bose[124] and Rash Behari Bose,[144] his yen for Soviet Communism,[145][146] and papers confiscated from Indian nationalists in New York allegedly implicating Tagore in a plot to use German funds to overthrow the Raj.[147] The latter destroyed Tagore's image and book sales in the U.S.[144] His relations with and ambivalent opinion of Mussolini revolted many;[58] close friend Romain Rolland[148]
despaired that "[h]e is abdicating his role as moral guide of the independent spirits of Europe and India". - ^ ι: On the "idea of the humanity of our God, or the divinity of Man the Eternal".
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